Dear Parents,

What makes for a good writer? Here are some conclusions, based on a survey of recent research. The following information is summarized from a book entitled Writing: Research, Theory, and Applications, by Stephen D. Krashen, published by Pergamon Institute of English, New York. 1984

1. Voluntary pleasure reading is related to writing ability. Seven different studies of high school and college students showed that the better writers read a lot during the high school years for their own pleasure. Differences in instruction were minimal or none.

2. The best writers practice writing a variety of forms. Nine studies of high school and college students showed that better writers wrote more often, both in school and out, and wrote for more varied purposes, and in more varied genres.

3. Time spent reading is at least as effective as time spent writing, and is usually more effective. Three studies of elementary school, high school, and college writers showed that using time for reading rather than writing (beyond a minimum) was usually more effective in creating better writers.

4. Writing instruction is effective, but only for the most basic skills of form and organization. Two studies of college students indicate that such skills might include "supporting ideas with examples," "clearly stating topics or themes," and paragraph structure. Beyond this, direct formal instruction is not effective.

5. Feedback to writers is most effective when given between revisions, and not at the end. In three studies of college students, teacher feedback was most useful in the skill of "giving concrete examples."

6. Teachers giving feedback should not correct every error. In two studies of high school and college students, correction of selected errors was just as effective as correction of every error, and having the students copy over the papers.

7. Formal grammar instruction is not effective in helping students to write. Three studies of elementary, high school, and college students show that grammar instruction produces no improvement in student writing, and that time spent in literature instruction is more profitable for them.

8. Good writers plan more. Six studies of high school, college, and professional writers show that good writers plan more, but often don't use formal planning methods. Their plans are usually more flexible than the plans of poor writers.

9. Good writers reread what they have just written. Six studies of high school writers show that good writers pause more often when writing, and reread what they've written nearly three times as often as poor writers.

10. Good writers revise more often. When they revise, they focus more on content than surface form. Five studies of high school, college, and professional writers show that the best writers revise the content of what they write. The average writers use revision merely to bring out whatever meaning is present in a first draft. Poor writers only revise for mechanics and spelling, which often inhibits them from writing clear thoughts.

11. Good writers are aware of their audience. Two studies of college writers show that the best writers are aware of the reader's needs.

1. Good writing is a long-term payoff from years of reading.

2. Writers need to know that writing is a process, and write that way.

3. Lots of practice in writing is necessary.

4. Grammar teaching (sentence diagramming, verb forms, etc.) is useful in some situations, but is not central to good writing.

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