A review of What Works - Research about learning - copyright Paul MacFarlane 1990

What WorksResearch About Teaching and LearningThe following are the main points from What Works - Research About Teaching and Learning, second edition, produced in 1987 by the United States Department of Education. The original work is available from What Works, Pueblo, Colorado, 81009 or 1-(202)-783-3238. The price in 1990 was $3. Each of the following points is backed up by at least five (and usually six or seven) research studies published during the first half of the 1980's.

The Home

Curriculum of the Home Parents are their children's first and most influential teachers. What parents do to help their children learn is more important to academic success than how well-off the family is.

Reading to Children The best way for parents to help their children become better readers is to read to them - even when they are very young. Children benefit most from reading aloud when they discuss stories, learn to identify letters and words, and talk about the meaning of words.

Independent Reading Children improve their reading ability by reading a lot. Reading achievement is directly related to the amount of reading children do in school and outside.

Early Writing Children who are encouraged to scrawl and scribble "stories" at an early age will later learn to compose more easily, more effectively and with greater confidence than children who do not have this encouragement.

Counting A good way to teach children simple arithmetic is to build on their informal knowledge. This is why learning to count everyday objects is an effective basis for early arithmetic lessons

Speaking and Listening A good foundation in speaking and listening helps children become better readers.

Television Excessive television viewing is associated with low academic achievement. Moderate viewing, especially when supervised by parents, can help children learn.

Developing Talent Many highly successful individuals have above-average, but not extraordinary intelligence. Accomplishment in a particular activity is often more dependent upon hard work and self-discipline than on innate ability.

Ideals Belief in the value of hard work, the importance of personal responsibility, and the importance of education itself contributes to greater success in school.

The Classroom

Getting Parents Involved Parental involvement helps children learn more effectively. Teachers who are successful at involving parents in their children's schoolwork are successful because they work at it.

Phonics Children get a better start in reading if they are taught phonics. Learning phonics helps them to understand the relationship between letters and sounds and to "break the code" that links the words they hear and the words they see in print.

Reading Comprehension Children get more out of a reading assignment when the teacher precedes the lesson with background information and follows it with discussion.

Cooperative Learning Students in cooperative learning teams learn to work toward a common goal, help one another learn, gain self-esteem, take more responsibility for their own learning, and come to respect and like their classmates.

Storytelling Telling young children stories can motivate them to read. Storytelling also introduces them to cultural values and literary traditions before they can read, write, and talk about stories by themselves.

Science Experiments Children learn science best when they are able to do experiments, so they can witness "science in action"

Estimating Although students need to learn how to find exact answers to arithmetic problems, good math students also learn the helpful skill of estimating answers. This skill can be taught.

Learning Mathematics Children in early grades learn mathematics more effectively when they use physical objects in their lessons.

Solving Word Problems Students will become more adept at solving math problems if teachers encourage them to think through a problem before they begin working on it, guide them through the thinking process, and give them regular and frequent practice in solving problems.

Teaching Writing The most effective way to teach writing is to teach it s a process of brainstorming, composing, revising, and editing.

Vocabulary Instruction Children learn vocabulary better when the words they study are related to familiar experiences and to knowledge they already possess.

Illustrations Well-chosen diagrams, graphs, photos, and illustrations can enhance students' learning.

Teacher Expectations Teachers who set and communicate high expectations to all their students obtain greater academic performance from those students than teacher who set low expectations.

Reading Aloud Hearing good readers read and encouraging students repeatedly to read a passage aloud helps them become good readers

Student Ability and Effort Children's understanding of the relationship between being smart and hard work changes as they grow. (i.e. in early grades, students don't distinguish between ability and effort, and later, they do, sometimes to their own detriment)

Attaining Competence As students acquire knowledge and skill, their thinking and reasoning take on distinct characteristics. Teachers who are alert to these changes can determine how well their students are progressing toward becoming competent thinkers and problem solvers. (for example, competent learners progress in seeing underlying principles and patterns, and in carrying out tasks with less need for concentration)

Managing Classroom Time How much time students are actively engages in learning contributes strongly to their achievement. The amount of time available for learning is determined by the instructional and management skills of the teacher and the priorities set by the school administration.

Behavior Problems Good classroom management is essential for teachers to deal with students who chronically misbehave, but such students also benefit from specific suggestions from teachers on how to cope with their conflicts and frustrations. This also helps them gain insights about their behavior.

Direct Instruction When teachers explain exactly what students are expected to learn, and demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish a particular academic task, students learn more.

Purposeful Writing Students become more interested in writing and the quality of their writing improves when there are significant learning goals for writing assignments and a clear sense of purpose for writing.

Teacher Feedback Constructive feedback from teachers, including deserved praise and specific suggestions, helps students to learn, as well as develop positive self-esteem.

Tutoring Students tutoring other students can lead to improved academic achievement for both student and tutor, and to positive attitudes toward coursework.

Memorization Memorizing can help students absorb and retain the factual information on which understanding and critical thought are based.

Questioning Student achievement rises when teachers ask questions that require students to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information in addition to simply recalling facts.

Study Skills The ways in which children study influence strongly how much they learn. Teachers can often help children develop better study skills.

Homework: Quantity Student achievement rises significantly when teachers regularly assign homework and students conscientiously do it.

Homework:
Quantity
Well-designed homework assignments relate directly to classwork and extend students' learning beyond the classroom. Homework is most useful when teachers carefully prepare the assignment, thoroughly explain it, and give prompt comments and criticism when the work is completed.

Assessment Frequent and systematic monitoring of students' progress helps students, parents, teachers, administrators, and policy makers identify strengths and weaknesses in learning and instruction.

Prior Knowledge When teachers introduce new subject matter, they need to help students grasp its relationship to facts and concepts they have previously learned.

The School

Effective Schools The most important characteristics of effective schools are strong instructional leadership, a safe and orderly climate, school-wide emphasis on basic skills, high teacher expectations for student achievement, and continuous assessment of pupil progress.

School Climate Schools that encourage academic achievement focus on the importance of scholastic success and on maintaining order and discipline.

Character Education Good character is encouraged by surrounding students with good adult examples and by building upon natural occasions for learning and practicing good character. Skillful educators know how to organize their schools, classrooms, and lessons to foster such examples.

Libraries The use of libraries enhances reading skills and encourages independent learning.

Discipline Schools contribute to their students' academic achievement by establishing, communicating, and enforcing fair and consistent discipline policies.

Attendance A school staff that provides encouragement and personalized attention, and monitors daily attendance can reduce unexcused absences and class-cutting.

Effective Principals Successful principals establish policies that create an orderly environment and support effective instruction.

Succeeding in a New School When schools provide comprehensive orientation programs for students transferring from one school to another, they ease the special stresses and adjustment difficulties those students face. The result is apt to be improved student performance.

Instructional Support Underachieving or mildly handicapped students can benefit most from remedial education when the lessons in those classes are closely coordinated with those n their regular classes.

Collegiality Students benefit academically when their teachers share ideas, cooperate in activities, and assist one another's intellectual growth.

Teacher Supervision Teachers welcome professional suggestions about improving their work, but they rarely receive them.

Main-
streaming
Many children who are physically handicapped or have emotional or learning problems can be given an appropriate education in well-supported regular classes and schools.

Cultural Literacy Students read more fluently and with greater understanding if they have knowledge of the world and their culture, past and present. Such knowledge and understanding is called "cultural literacy."

Foreign Language The best way to learn a foreign language in school is to start early and to study it intensively over many years.

Rigorous Courses The stronger the emphasis on academic courses, the more advanced the subject matter, and the more rigorous the textbooks, the more high school students learn. Subjects that are learned manly in school rather than at home, such as science and math, are most influenced by the number and kind of courses taken.

School-to-Work Transition Handicapped high school students who seek them are more likely to find jobs after graduation when schools prepare them for careers and private sector businesses provide on-the-job training.

History Skimpy requirements and declining enrollments in history classes are contributing to a decline in students' knowledge of the past.

Acceleration Advancing gifted students at a faster pace results in their achieving more than similarly gifted students who are taught at a normal rate.

Extracurricular Activities High School students who complement their academic studies with extracurricular activities gain experience that contributes to their success in college.

Work Experience When students work more than 15 to 20 hours per week, their grades may suffer. They can benefit, however, from limited out-of-school work.

Preparation for Work Business leaders report that students with solid basic skills and positive work attitudes are more likely to find and keep jobs than students with vocational skills alone.

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Curriculum of the Home	Parents are their children's first and most influential teachers. What parents do to help their children learn is more important to academic success than how well-off the family is.
Reading to Children	The best way for parents to help their children become better readers is to read to them - even when they are very young. Children benefit most from reading aloud when they discuss stories, learn to identify letters and words, and talk about the meaning of words.
Independent Reading	Children improve their reading ability by reading a lot. Reading achievement is directly related to the amount of reading children do in school and outside.
Early Writing	Children who are encouraged to scrawl and scribble "stories" at an early age will later learn to compose more easily, more effectively and with greater confidence than children who do not have this encouragement.
Counting	A good way to teach children simple arithmetic is to build on their informal knowledge. This is why learning to count everyday objects is an effective basis for early arithmetic lessons
Speaking and Listening	A good foundation in speaking and listening helps children become better readers.
Television	Excessive television viewing is associated with low academic achievement. Moderate viewing, especially when supervised by parents, can help children learn.
Developing Talent	Many highly successful individuals have above-average, but not extraordinary intelligence. Accomplishment in a particular activity is often more dependent upon hard work and self-discipline than on innate ability.
Ideals	Belief in the value of hard work, the importance of personal responsibility, and the importance of education itself contributes to greater success in school.

Getting Parents Involved	Parental involvement helps children learn more effectively. Teachers who are successful at involving parents in their children's schoolwork are successful because they work at it.
Phonics	Children get a better start in reading if they are taught phonics. Learning phonics helps them to understand the relationship between letters and sounds and to "break the code" that links the words they hear and the words they see in print.
Reading Comprehension	Children get more out of a reading assignment when the teacher precedes the lesson with background information and follows it with discussion.
Cooperative Learning	Students in cooperative learning teams learn to work toward a common goal, help one another learn, gain self-esteem, take more responsibility for their own learning, and come to respect and like their classmates.
Storytelling	Telling young children stories can motivate them to read. Storytelling also introduces them to cultural values and literary traditions before they can read, write, and talk about stories by themselves.
Science Experiments	Children learn science best when they are able to do experiments, so they can witness "science in action"
Estimating	Although students need to learn how to find exact answers to arithmetic problems, good math students also learn the helpful skill of estimating answers. This skill can be taught.
Learning Mathematics	Children in early grades learn mathematics more effectively when they use physical objects in their lessons.
Solving Word Problems	Students will become more adept at solving math problems if teachers encourage them to think through a problem before they begin working on it, guide them through the thinking process, and give them regular and frequent practice in solving problems.
Teaching Writing	The most effective way to teach writing is to teach it s a process of brainstorming, composing, revising, and editing.
Vocabulary Instruction	Children learn vocabulary better when the words they study are related to familiar experiences and to knowledge they already possess.
Illustrations	Well-chosen diagrams, graphs, photos, and illustrations can enhance students' learning.
Teacher Expectations	Teachers who set and communicate high expectations to all their students obtain greater academic performance from those students than teacher who set low expectations.
Reading Aloud	Hearing good readers read and encouraging students repeatedly to read a passage aloud helps them become good readers
Student Ability and Effort	Children's understanding of the relationship between being smart and hard work changes as they grow. (i.e. in early grades, students don't distinguish between ability and effort, and later, they do, sometimes to their own detriment)
Attaining Competence	As students acquire knowledge and skill, their thinking and reasoning take on distinct characteristics. Teachers who are alert to these changes can determine how well their students are progressing toward becoming competent thinkers and problem solvers. (for example, competent learners progress in seeing underlying principles and patterns, and in carrying out tasks with less need for concentration)
Managing Classroom Time	How much time students are actively engages in learning contributes strongly to their achievement. The amount of time available for learning is determined by the instructional and management skills of the teacher and the priorities set by the school administration.
Behavior Problems	Good classroom management is essential for teachers to deal with students who chronically misbehave, but such students also benefit from specific suggestions from teachers on how to cope with their conflicts and frustrations. This also helps them gain insights about their behavior.
Direct Instruction	When teachers explain exactly what students are expected to learn, and demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish a particular academic task, students learn more.
Purposeful Writing	Students become more interested in writing and the quality of their writing improves when there are significant learning goals for writing assignments and a clear sense of purpose for writing.
Teacher Feedback	Constructive feedback from teachers, including deserved praise and specific suggestions, helps students to learn, as well as develop positive self-esteem.
Tutoring	Students tutoring other students can lead to improved academic achievement for both student and tutor, and to positive attitudes toward coursework.
Memorization	Memorizing can help students absorb and retain the factual information on which understanding and critical thought are based.
Questioning	Student achievement rises when teachers ask questions that require students to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information in addition to simply recalling facts.
Study Skills	The ways in which children study influence strongly how much they learn. Teachers can often help children develop better study skills.
Homework: Quantity	Student achievement rises significantly when teachers regularly assign homework and students conscientiously do it.
Homework: Quantity	Well-designed homework assignments relate directly to classwork and extend students' learning beyond the classroom. Homework is most useful when teachers carefully prepare the assignment, thoroughly explain it, and give prompt comments and criticism when the work is completed.
Assessment	Frequent and systematic monitoring of students' progress helps students, parents, teachers, administrators, and policy makers identify strengths and weaknesses in learning and instruction.
Prior Knowledge	When teachers introduce new subject matter, they need to help students grasp its relationship to facts and concepts they have previously learned.

Effective Schools	The most important characteristics of effective schools are strong instructional leadership, a safe and orderly climate, school-wide emphasis on basic skills, high teacher expectations for student achievement, and continuous assessment of pupil progress.
School Climate	Schools that encourage academic achievement focus on the importance of scholastic success and on maintaining order and discipline.
Character Education	Good character is encouraged by surrounding students with good adult examples and by building upon natural occasions for learning and practicing good character. Skillful educators know how to organize their schools, classrooms, and lessons to foster such examples.
Libraries	The use of libraries enhances reading skills and encourages independent learning.
Discipline	Schools contribute to their students' academic achievement by establishing, communicating, and enforcing fair and consistent discipline policies.
Attendance	A school staff that provides encouragement and personalized attention, and monitors daily attendance can reduce unexcused absences and class-cutting.
Effective Principals	Successful principals establish policies that create an orderly environment and support effective instruction.
Succeeding in a New School	When schools provide comprehensive orientation programs for students transferring from one school to another, they ease the special stresses and adjustment difficulties those students face. The result is apt to be improved student performance.
Instructional Support	Underachieving or mildly handicapped students can benefit most from remedial education when the lessons in those classes are closely coordinated with those n their regular classes.
Collegiality	Students benefit academically when their teachers share ideas, cooperate in activities, and assist one another's intellectual growth.
Teacher Supervision	Teachers welcome professional suggestions about improving their work, but they rarely receive them.
Main- streaming	Many children who are physically handicapped or have emotional or learning problems can be given an appropriate education in well-supported regular classes and schools.
Cultural Literacy	Students read more fluently and with greater understanding if they have knowledge of the world and their culture, past and present. Such knowledge and understanding is called "cultural literacy."
Foreign Language	The best way to learn a foreign language in school is to start early and to study it intensively over many years.
Rigorous Courses	The stronger the emphasis on academic courses, the more advanced the subject matter, and the more rigorous the textbooks, the more high school students learn. Subjects that are learned manly in school rather than at home, such as science and math, are most influenced by the number and kind of courses taken.
School-to-Work Transition	Handicapped high school students who seek them are more likely to find jobs after graduation when schools prepare them for careers and private sector businesses provide on-the-job training.
History	Skimpy requirements and declining enrollments in history classes are contributing to a decline in students' knowledge of the past.
Acceleration	Advancing gifted students at a faster pace results in their achieving more than similarly gifted students who are taught at a normal rate.
Extracurricular Activities	High School students who complement their academic studies with extracurricular activities gain experience that contributes to their success in college.
Work Experience	When students work more than 15 to 20 hours per week, their grades may suffer. They can benefit, however, from limited out-of-school work.
Preparation for Work	Business leaders report that students with solid basic skills and positive work attitudes are more likely to find and keep jobs than students with vocational skills alone.